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의제형성과정에서의 이익집단 로비활동의 형태와 그 정책적 결과
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자료설명
의제형성의 과정은 사회의 다양한 집단들의 요구가 정책결정자들의 정책적 관심과 고려의 대상이 되기 위해 경쟁하는 과정이라고 정의될 수 있다(Co...
본문/내용
의제형성의 과정은 사회의 다양한 집단들의 요구가 정책결정자들의 정책적 관심과 고려의 대상이 되기 위해 경쟁하는 과정이라고 정의될 수 있다(Cobb, Ross, and Ross 1976; Dearing and Rogers 1996). 이 과정에서 자기이익(self-interest), 공통된 가치(shared values)에 의해 촉발된 각 집단간의 경쟁과 갈등은 사회적, 정치적 이슈들을 공식적 의제(formal agenda)화하는데 중요한 역할을 한다.
정책결정이전단계(pre-decisional process)라고 할 수 있는 의제형성의 단계는 그 이후의 전단계에 걸쳐 결정적 영향을 미친다고 할 수 있다(Cobb and Elder 1972). 왜냐하면 바로 이 단계에서 무엇이 정책이슈이며 그에 따른 정책적 대안은 무엇인가가 정치체제에 의해 고려되는 단계이며 이후 그것에 따라 필요한 정책적 선택이 이루어지기 때문이다. 따라서 이러한 관점에서 보면 어떻게 다양한 정책이슈나 정책요구(demand)들이 정치체제에 의해 실제로 정책적 고려대상이 될 수 있는지가 중요한 문제라고 할 수 있다.
이때 모든 정책적 문제가 정책결정자나 이익집단 혹은 대중에 의해 동일하게 인식되는 것은 아니다. 따라서 자기이익에 근거하여 전략적, 정치적 행위자들의 특정한 정책이슈에 대한 지지활동이나 반대활동은 이후 정책행위를 위한 공식적 형성하는데 중요한 영향을 미친다고 할 수 있을 것이다. 다시 말해 어떠한 정책문제들이 의제로 채택되는가 또는 정책결정자나 이익집단들에 의해 어떻게 정책대안들이 정의되는가 하는 이러한 정치적 갈등의 동학은 정치체제내에서의 정책형성과정을 규정하는 중요한 요소라고 할 수 있다.
정책결정이전단계(pre-decisional process)라고 할 수 있는 의제형성의 단계는 그 이후의 전단계에 걸쳐 결정적 영향을 미친다고 할 수 있다(Cobb and Elder 1972). 왜냐하면 바로 이 단계에서 무엇이 정책이슈이며 그에 따른 정책적 대안은 무엇인가가 정치체제에 의해 고려되는 단계이며 이후 그것에 따라 필요한 정책적 선택이 이루어지기 때문이다. 따라서 이러한 관점에서 보면 어떻게 다양한 정책이슈나 정책요구(demand)들이 정치체제에 의해 실제로 정책적 고려대상이 될 수 있는지가 중요한 문제라고 할 수 있다.
이때 모든 정책적 문제가 정책결정자나 이익집단 혹은 대중에 의해 동일하게 인식되는 것은 아니다. 따라서 자기이익에 근거하여 전략적, 정치적 행위자들의 특정한 정책이슈에 대한 지지활동이나 반대활동은 이후 정책행위를 위한 공식적 형성하는데 중요한 영향을 미친다고 할 수 있을 것이다. 다시 말해 어떠한 정책문제들이 의제로 채택되는가 또는 정책결정자나 이익집단들에 의해 어떻게 정책대안들이 정의되는가 하는 이러한 정치적 갈등의 동학은 정치체제내에서의 정책형성과정을 규정하는 중요한 요소라고 할 수 있다.
참고문헌
Austin-Smith, David. 1993. “Information and Influence: Lobbying for Votes and Agendas. American Journal of Political Science. Vol.37: 799-833.
Austin-Smith, David, and John R. Wright. 1994. Counteractive Lobbying. American Journal of Political Science. Vol.38: 25-44.
Bachrach, Peter, and Morton S. Baratz.1962. Two Faces of Power. American Political Science Riview. Vol.56: 947-52.
Bauer, Raymond A., Ithiel de Sola Pool, and Lewis Anthony Dexter. 1963. American Business and Public Policy. New York: Atherton Press.
Baumgartner, Frank R., and Bryan D. Jones. 1993. Agendas and Instability in American Politics. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Baumgartner, Frank R., and Beth L. Leech. 1998. Basic Interests: The Importance of Groups in Politics and in Political Science. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Berry, Jeffrey M. 1989. Subgovernments, Issue Networks, and Political Conflict. In Remaking American Politics, ed. Richard Harris and Sidney Milkis. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Birkland, Thomas A. 1998. Focusing Events, Mobilization, and Agenda Setting. Journal of Public Policy. Vol. 18, No. 1: 53-74.
Bosso, Christopher J. 1987. Pesticides and Politics: The Life Cycle of a Public Issue. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Bosso, Christopher J. 1989. Setting the Agenda: Mass Media and the Discovery of Femine in Ethiopia. In Manipulating Public Opinion, eds. M. Margolis and G. Mauser, Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole.
Browne, William P. 1990. Organized Interests and Their Issue Niches: A Search for Pluralism in a Policy Domain. Journal of Politics. Vol.52
Browne, William P. 1995. Cultivating Congress: Constituencies, Issues and Interests in Agricultural Policymaking. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press.
Carmines, Edward G., and James A. Stimson. 1989. Issue Evolution: Race and the Transformation of American Politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Cigler, Allan J. 1991. Interest Groups: A Subfield in Search of an Identity. In American Institutions. Vol. 4 of Political Science: Looking to the Future, ed. William Crotty. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
Cigler, Alan J., and Burdett A. Loomis, 1991. Organized Interests and the Search for Certainty. In Interest Group Politics. 3rd ed, ed. Allan J. Cigler and Burdett A. Loomis. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Inc.
Cigler, Allan J., and Burdett A. Loomis. 1995. Interest Group Politics. 4th ed. Washington DC: Congressional Quarterly.
Cobb, Roger, and Charles Elder. 1972. Participation in American Politics. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Cobb, Roger., Jeannie Keith-Ross, and Marc Howard Ross. 1976. Agenda Building as a Comparative Political Process. American Political Science Review. 70: 126-138.
Cobb, Roger, and Marc Howard Ross. 1997a. Agenda Setting and the Denial of Agenda Access: Key Concepts. In Cultural Strategies of Agenda Denial: Avoidance, Attack, and Redefinition. eds. Roger Cobb and Marc Howard Ross. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.
Cobb, Roger, and Marc Howard Ross. 1997b. Denying Agenda Access: Strategic Considerations. In Cultural Strategies of Agenda Denial: Avoidance, Attack, and Redefinition. eds. Roger Cobb and Marc Howard Ross. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.
Cook, F. L., Tyler, T. R., Goetz, E. G., Gordon, M. T., Leff, D. R., & Molotch, H. L. 1983. Media and Agenda-Setting: Effects on the Public, Interest Group Leaders, Policy Makers, and Policy. Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 47.
Dearing, James W. and Everett M. Rogers. 1996. Agenda-Setting. London: Sage Publication.
Destler, I. M. 1995. American Trade Politics. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics.
Evans, Diana M. 1986. PAC Contributions and Roll-Call Voting: Conditional Power. In Interest Group Politics, 2nd ed., ed Alan J. Cigler and Burdett A. Loomis. Washington DC: Congressional Quarterly.
Gais, T., M. Peterson, and J. C. Walker. 1984. Interest Groups, Iron Triangles, and Representative Institutions in American National Government. British Journal of Political Science. Vol. 14.
Ginsberg, Benjamin, and John C. Green. 1986. The Best Congress Money Can Buy: Campaign Contributions and Congressional Behavior. In Do Elections Matter? eds. Benjamin Ginsberg and Alan Stone. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.
Goldstein, Judith, and Robert Keohane, eds. 1993. Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political Change. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Hall, Richard L., and Frank W. Wayman. 1990. Buying Time: Moneyed Interests and the Mobilization of Bias in Congressional Committees. American Political Science Review. 84(3): 797-820.
Iyengar, Shanto. 1991. Is Anyone Responsible? How Television Frames Political Issues. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Jones, Bryan D. 1994. Reconceiving Decision-Making in Democratic Politics. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Kingdon, John W. 1995. Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies. 2nd ed. New York: HarperCollins College Publisher.
Kollman, Ken. 1998. Outside Lobbying: Public Opinion and Interest Group Strategies. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Lang, Gradys, and Kurt Lang. 1966. The Mass Media and Voting. In Reader in Public Opinion and Communication. Ed. Bernard Berelson and Morris Janowitz. New York: Free Press.
Langbein, Laura I., and Mark A. Lotwis. 1990. The Political Efficacy of Lobbying and Money: Gun Control in the U.S. House, 1986. Legislative Studies Quarterly. 15: 413-440.
MaCombs, M.E., and D. L. Shaw. 1972. The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media. Public Opinion Quarterly, .32(2): 176-187.
Majone, Giandomenico. 1989. Evidence, Argument, and Persuasion in the Policy Process. New Haven: Yale University Press.
March, James G., and Herbert A. Simon. 1958. Organizations. New York: Wiley.
March, James G., and Johan Olsen. 1984. The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life. American Political Science Review. Vol. 78: 734-750.
Page, Benjamin I. 1996. Who Deliberates?: Mass Media in Modern Democracy. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Petracca, Mark P. 1992. The Changing State of Interest Group Research: A Review and Commentary. In The Politics of Interests, ed. Mark P. Petracca. Boulder: Westview Press.
Riker, William. 1986. The Art of Political Manipulation. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Rochefort, D. A., and R. W. Cobb.1994. Problem Definition: An Emerging Perspective, in The Politics of Problem Definition: Shaping the Policy Agenda, ed. D. A. Rochefort, and R. W. Cobb. Lawrence: The University Press of Kansas.
Sabatier, Paul A. 1988. An Advocacy Coalition Framework of Policy Change and the Role of Policy Oriented Learning Therein. Policy Science 21: 129-168.
Sabatier, Paul A. 1991. Public Policy: Toward Better Theories of the Policy Process. In Political Science: Looking to the Future, Vol. II. Ed. William Crotty. Evanston, IL: Northwester University Press.
Salisbury, R. H., J. P, Heinz., R. L. Nelson., and E. O. Laumann. 1992. Triangles, Networks, and Hollow Cores: The Complex Geometry of Washington Interest Representation. In The Politics of Interests, ed. Mark P. Peracca. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Schattschneider, E. E. 1935. Politics, Pressures and the Tariff. New York: Prentice-Hall Inc.
Schattschneider, E. E. 1975. The Semi-Sovereign People. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Smith, Richard A. 1984. Advocacy, Interpretation, and Influence in the U.S. Congress. American Political Science Review. Vol. 78: 44-63.
Smith, Richard A. 1995. Interest Group Influence in the U.S. Congress. Legilstative Studies Quarterly. 20(1): 89-139.
Stone, Deborah A. 1989. Causal Stories and The Formation of Policy Agenda. Political Science Quarterly, 104(2): 281-300.
Walker, Jack L., Jr. 1991. Mobilizing Interest Groups in America. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
West, Darrell. M., and Burdett A. Loomis. 1998. The Sound of Money: How Political Interests Get What They Want. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Wright, John R. 1985. PACs, Contributioins, and Roll Calls: An Organizational Perspective. American Political Science Review. 79:400-414.
Wright, John R. 1989. PAC Contributions, Lobbying and Representation. Journal of Politics. 51: 713-729.
Wright, John R. 1990. Contributions, Lobbying, and Committee Voting in the U.S. House of Representatives. American Political Science Review. 84: 41-438.
Wright, John R. 1996. Interest Groups and Congress: Lobbying, Contributions, and Influence. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Austin-Smith, David, and John R. Wright. 1994. Counteractive Lobbying. American Journal of Political Science. Vol.38: 25-44.
Bachrach, Peter, and Morton S. Baratz.1962. Two Faces of Power. American Political Science Riview. Vol.56: 947-52.
Bauer, Raymond A., Ithiel de Sola Pool, and Lewis Anthony Dexter. 1963. American Business and Public Policy. New York: Atherton Press.
Baumgartner, Frank R., and Bryan D. Jones. 1993. Agendas and Instability in American Politics. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Baumgartner, Frank R., and Beth L. Leech. 1998. Basic Interests: The Importance of Groups in Politics and in Political Science. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Berry, Jeffrey M. 1989. Subgovernments, Issue Networks, and Political Conflict. In Remaking American Politics, ed. Richard Harris and Sidney Milkis. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Birkland, Thomas A. 1998. Focusing Events, Mobilization, and Agenda Setting. Journal of Public Policy. Vol. 18, No. 1: 53-74.
Bosso, Christopher J. 1987. Pesticides and Politics: The Life Cycle of a Public Issue. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Bosso, Christopher J. 1989. Setting the Agenda: Mass Media and the Discovery of Femine in Ethiopia. In Manipulating Public Opinion, eds. M. Margolis and G. Mauser, Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole.
Browne, William P. 1990. Organized Interests and Their Issue Niches: A Search for Pluralism in a Policy Domain. Journal of Politics. Vol.52
Browne, William P. 1995. Cultivating Congress: Constituencies, Issues and Interests in Agricultural Policymaking. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press.
Carmines, Edward G., and James A. Stimson. 1989. Issue Evolution: Race and the Transformation of American Politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Cigler, Allan J. 1991. Interest Groups: A Subfield in Search of an Identity. In American Institutions. Vol. 4 of Political Science: Looking to the Future, ed. William Crotty. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
Cigler, Alan J., and Burdett A. Loomis, 1991. Organized Interests and the Search for Certainty. In Interest Group Politics. 3rd ed, ed. Allan J. Cigler and Burdett A. Loomis. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Inc.
Cigler, Allan J., and Burdett A. Loomis. 1995. Interest Group Politics. 4th ed. Washington DC: Congressional Quarterly.
Cobb, Roger, and Charles Elder. 1972. Participation in American Politics. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Cobb, Roger., Jeannie Keith-Ross, and Marc Howard Ross. 1976. Agenda Building as a Comparative Political Process. American Political Science Review. 70: 126-138.
Cobb, Roger, and Marc Howard Ross. 1997a. Agenda Setting and the Denial of Agenda Access: Key Concepts. In Cultural Strategies of Agenda Denial: Avoidance, Attack, and Redefinition. eds. Roger Cobb and Marc Howard Ross. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.
Cobb, Roger, and Marc Howard Ross. 1997b. Denying Agenda Access: Strategic Considerations. In Cultural Strategies of Agenda Denial: Avoidance, Attack, and Redefinition. eds. Roger Cobb and Marc Howard Ross. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.
Cook, F. L., Tyler, T. R., Goetz, E. G., Gordon, M. T., Leff, D. R., & Molotch, H. L. 1983. Media and Agenda-Setting: Effects on the Public, Interest Group Leaders, Policy Makers, and Policy. Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 47.
Dearing, James W. and Everett M. Rogers. 1996. Agenda-Setting. London: Sage Publication.
Destler, I. M. 1995. American Trade Politics. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics.
Evans, Diana M. 1986. PAC Contributions and Roll-Call Voting: Conditional Power. In Interest Group Politics, 2nd ed., ed Alan J. Cigler and Burdett A. Loomis. Washington DC: Congressional Quarterly.
Gais, T., M. Peterson, and J. C. Walker. 1984. Interest Groups, Iron Triangles, and Representative Institutions in American National Government. British Journal of Political Science. Vol. 14.
Ginsberg, Benjamin, and John C. Green. 1986. The Best Congress Money Can Buy: Campaign Contributions and Congressional Behavior. In Do Elections Matter? eds. Benjamin Ginsberg and Alan Stone. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.
Goldstein, Judith, and Robert Keohane, eds. 1993. Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political Change. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Hall, Richard L., and Frank W. Wayman. 1990. Buying Time: Moneyed Interests and the Mobilization of Bias in Congressional Committees. American Political Science Review. 84(3): 797-820.
Iyengar, Shanto. 1991. Is Anyone Responsible? How Television Frames Political Issues. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Jones, Bryan D. 1994. Reconceiving Decision-Making in Democratic Politics. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Kingdon, John W. 1995. Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies. 2nd ed. New York: HarperCollins College Publisher.
Kollman, Ken. 1998. Outside Lobbying: Public Opinion and Interest Group Strategies. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Lang, Gradys, and Kurt Lang. 1966. The Mass Media and Voting. In Reader in Public Opinion and Communication. Ed. Bernard Berelson and Morris Janowitz. New York: Free Press.
Langbein, Laura I., and Mark A. Lotwis. 1990. The Political Efficacy of Lobbying and Money: Gun Control in the U.S. House, 1986. Legislative Studies Quarterly. 15: 413-440.
MaCombs, M.E., and D. L. Shaw. 1972. The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media. Public Opinion Quarterly, .32(2): 176-187.
Majone, Giandomenico. 1989. Evidence, Argument, and Persuasion in the Policy Process. New Haven: Yale University Press.
March, James G., and Herbert A. Simon. 1958. Organizations. New York: Wiley.
March, James G., and Johan Olsen. 1984. The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life. American Political Science Review. Vol. 78: 734-750.
Page, Benjamin I. 1996. Who Deliberates?: Mass Media in Modern Democracy. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Petracca, Mark P. 1992. The Changing State of Interest Group Research: A Review and Commentary. In The Politics of Interests, ed. Mark P. Petracca. Boulder: Westview Press.
Riker, William. 1986. The Art of Political Manipulation. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Rochefort, D. A., and R. W. Cobb.1994. Problem Definition: An Emerging Perspective, in The Politics of Problem Definition: Shaping the Policy Agenda, ed. D. A. Rochefort, and R. W. Cobb. Lawrence: The University Press of Kansas.
Sabatier, Paul A. 1988. An Advocacy Coalition Framework of Policy Change and the Role of Policy Oriented Learning Therein. Policy Science 21: 129-168.
Sabatier, Paul A. 1991. Public Policy: Toward Better Theories of the Policy Process. In Political Science: Looking to the Future, Vol. II. Ed. William Crotty. Evanston, IL: Northwester University Press.
Salisbury, R. H., J. P, Heinz., R. L. Nelson., and E. O. Laumann. 1992. Triangles, Networks, and Hollow Cores: The Complex Geometry of Washington Interest Representation. In The Politics of Interests, ed. Mark P. Peracca. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Schattschneider, E. E. 1935. Politics, Pressures and the Tariff. New York: Prentice-Hall Inc.
Schattschneider, E. E. 1975. The Semi-Sovereign People. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Smith, Richard A. 1984. Advocacy, Interpretation, and Influence in the U.S. Congress. American Political Science Review. Vol. 78: 44-63.
Smith, Richard A. 1995. Interest Group Influence in the U.S. Congress. Legilstative Studies Quarterly. 20(1): 89-139.
Stone, Deborah A. 1989. Causal Stories and The Formation of Policy Agenda. Political Science Quarterly, 104(2): 281-300.
Walker, Jack L., Jr. 1991. Mobilizing Interest Groups in America. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
West, Darrell. M., and Burdett A. Loomis. 1998. The Sound of Money: How Political Interests Get What They Want. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Wright, John R. 1985. PACs, Contributioins, and Roll Calls: An Organizational Perspective. American Political Science Review. 79:400-414.
Wright, John R. 1989. PAC Contributions, Lobbying and Representation. Journal of Politics. 51: 713-729.
Wright, John R. 1990. Contributions, Lobbying, and Committee Voting in the U.S. House of Representatives. American Political Science Review. 84: 41-438.
Wright, John R. 1996. Interest Groups and Congress: Lobbying, Contributions, and Influence. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
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