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온두라스의 민-군 관계에 대한 재정의* *
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자료설명
Ⅲ. 민주주의와 군부의 우위성: 1980년대의 민-군관계
1980년에 군부는 제헌의회를 구성하는 총선거를 실시하였는데 여기서는 자유당이 승...
1980년에 군부는 제헌의회를 구성하는 총선거를 실시하였는데 여기서는 자유당이 승...
본문/내용
Ⅲ. 민주주의와 군부의 우위성: 1980년대의 민-군관계
1980년에 군부는 제헌의회를 구성하는 총선거를 실시하였는데 여기서는 자유당이 승리하였다. 그럼에도 불구하고 빠스장군은 과도정부의 수장으로 여전히 머물렀고 자유당과 국민당의 대통령 후보들에게 1)내각임명에 대한 군부의 거부권 2)국가의 대내외 안보정책에 대한 군부의 독점적 통제 3)군부의 부패나 인권유린 등에 대한 조사를 하지 않을 것들을 강요하였다.(Schulz and Schulz, 1994: 71-72) 더욱이 군 고위층은 새 헌법이 그들의 정치적, 제도적 자치가 새 헌법에 의해 지속적으로 보장하도록 만들었다. 즉 1982년에 제정된 헌법에 의하면 군에 대한 대통령의 명령은 반드시 참모총장을 거쳐 이루어지도록 되어 있다. 또한 대통령은 군 수뇌들을 임명하거나 해임할 권한도 갖지 못하게 되었으며 대신 각군 참모총장들은 최고군사평의회에서 제청한 3명중 1명을 국회에서 선출하도록 되었고 국회의원 2/3의 찬성이 있어야만 해임될 수 있었다.
1982년 자유당 대통령 후보였던 로베르또 수아소 꼬르도바Roberto Suazo Córdova가 대통령에 당선되고 나서야 민주주의는 형식적으로 부활하였다. 하지만 군부는 여전히 막강한 정치적 지배자로 남아있었다. 안보와는 무관한 정책입안은 민간정부가 담당하고 있었지만 새 정권 아래에서 군부는 다양한 방법으로 그들의 권력을 강화하였다. 이것은 대부분 엘 살바도르에서 대게릴라전과 나카라구아 ‘콘트라 전쟁’에서의 온두라스의 협조에 대한 대가로 미국의 대 온두라스 군사원조가 1980년 3억 9000달러이던 것이 1984년 레이건 행정부아래서 77억 5천만 달러로 급증한 데 기인한다. 본 논문에서 미국의 대 온두라스 군사원조에 대한 자료는 떼구시갈빠Tegucigalpa
참고문헌
AGÜERO, F., “The Military and Limits to Democratization in South America”, pp. 153-198, Issues in Democratic consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective, ed by Scott Mainwarning. et al, Notre Dame, Univ of Notre Dame Press, 1992.
ARCOS, C., Author interview with former US Ambassador at the State Department, Washington DC, March, 1995.
AZCONA HOYO, J., Author interview with former Hodurian president, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, March, 1995.
Center for Justice and International Law and Human Rights Watch/ Americas, The Fact Speaks for Themselves: Preliminary Report on Disappearances of the National Commissioner for the Protection of Human Rights in Honduras, New York, NY, Human Rights Watch, 1994.
Central America Report, “Honduras: Step Back on Draft”, 21. 30, 12. August, p. 3.
Central America Report, “Honduras: Military Resists Budget Cuts”, 18. 22, 14. June, 1991, pp. 169-170.
DIX, R., “Military Coups and Military Rule in Latin America”, Armed Forces and Society 20. 3, Spring. 1994, pp. 439-456.
FLORES, E., “National Security”, pp. 209-248, Honduras: A Country Study, ed. by Tim L. Merrill, Washington DC, Government Printing Office, 1995.
FUNES, M., Los Deliberantes: El Poder militar en Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Editorial Guaymuras, 1995.
Honduras: Boletín Informativo(Tegucigalpa), “Relaciones cívico- militares”, 167, pp. 7-12, March. 1995a.
_______, “Situación de los derechos humanos en Hoduras”, 167, pp. 8-14, March. 1995b.
_______, “Acontecer económico”, 168, pp. 5-6, April. 1995c.
_______, “Relaciones cívico-militares”, 164, pp. 5-7, December. 1994a.
_______, “Relaciones cívico-militares”, 163, pp. 7-11, November. 1994b.
_______, “Acontecer económico”, 153, pp. 10-11, January. 1994c.
HUNTER, W., “Politicians against Soldiers: Contesting the Military in Postauthoritarian Brazil”, Comparative Politics 27, pp. 425-445, 1995.
HUNTINGTON, S., The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, Norman, OK, Univ of Oklahoma Press, 1991.
_______, Political Order in changing Societies, New Haven, CT, Yale Univ Press, 1968.
Latin American Weekly Report, “Honduras: Discua Blinks, Politicos Charge”, 12, p. 137, 1994.
LOVEMAN, B., “`Protected Democracies` and Military Guardianship: Political transitions in Latin America, 1978-1993”, Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 36, pp. 105-189, 1994.
MAINWARNING, S. G., O`DONNEL and S. VALENZUELA, “Introduction”, Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective, ed. by Scott Mainwarning, Guillermo O`Donnel, J., Samuel Valenzuela, Notre Dame, IN, Univ of Notre Dame Press, 1992.
MARTINEZ, J., “Los militares: Su peso específico en la vida política Hondureña, capítulo uno”, pp. 16-21, Tiempos Nuevos, Marzo, Tegucigalpa, 1994a.
_______, “Los militares: Su peso específico en la vida política Hondureña, capítulo dos”, pp. 34-36, Tiempos Nuevos, Mayo, Tegucigalpa, 1994b.
MEZA, V., “The Military: Willing to deal”, NACLA Report on the americas 22, pp. 14-21, 1988.
Miami Herald, “A General Rises as Military Weakness”, 19-A, 20. January, 1996.
MILLETT, R., “An End to Militarism?: Democracy and the Armed Forces in Central America”, Current History 94, 589, pp. 71-75, Febrary, 1995
MOLINA CHOCANO, G., “Governabilidad y reforma del estado en Centroamérica”, Revista de Defensa Nacional 2, 1, Marzo, pp. 5-13, Tegucigalpa, 1995.
MORRIS, J., Honduras: Caudillo Politics and Military Rulers, Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1984.
O`DONNELL, G., P. SCHMITTER, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies, Baltimore, MD, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986.
PION-BERLIN, D., “The Armed Forces and Politics: Gains and Snares in Recent Scholarship”, Latin American Research Review 30, 1, pp. 147-162, 1995.
_______, “Military Autonomy and Emerging Democracies in South America”, Comparative Politics 25, 1, October, pp. 83-102, 1992.
RIAL, J., “The Armed Forces and Democracy: The Interests of Latin American Military Cooperations in Sustaining Democratic Regimes”, pp. 277-295, The Military and Democracy: The Future of Civil-Military relations in Latin America, ed. by Louis W Goodman, Johanna S. R Mendelson, Juan Rial, Lexington, MA, Lexington Books, 1990.
ROPP, S., “Explaining the Long-Term Maintenance of a Military Regime: Panama before the U. S Invasion, World Politics 44, 2, January, pp. 210-234, 1992.
_______, “The Honduran Army in the Sociopolitical Evolution of the Honduran State”, The Americas 30, 4, April, pp. 504-528, 1974.
ROSENBERG, M., “Democracy in Honduras: The Electoral and Political Reality”, pp. 66-83, Elections and Democracy in Central America, Revisited, ed. by John A. Booth and Mitchell A Seligson, Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Press, 1996.
_______, “Narcos and Politics: The Politics of Drug Trafficking in Honduras”, Journal of Democracy in Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 30, 2 & 3(Summer/Fall), pp. 143-165, 1988.
ROSENBERG, T., “Overcoming the Legacies of Dictatorship”, Foreign Affairs 74, 3(My/June), pp. 134-152, 1995.
ROUQUI, A., “Demilitarization and the Institutionalization of Military-dominated Politics in Latin America”, pp. 108-136, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives, ed. by Guillermo O`Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead, Baltimore, MD, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986.
SALOMON, L., “Honduras: las fuerzas armadas y retos de la consolidación democrática”, pp. 57-83, Los retos de la Democracia, ed. por Leticia Salomón, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Centro de Documentación de Honduras, 1994a.
_______, Democratización y sociedad civil en Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Centro de Documentación de Honduras, 1994b.
_______, “Las dificultades de la reconversación militar en Honduras”, Puntos de Vista 8, diciembre, pp. 10-19, 1993.
_______, Política y militares en Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Centro de Documentación de Honduras, 1992.
_______, “The National Security Doctrine in Honduras: Analysis of the Fall of General Gustavo Alvarez Martínez”, pp. 197-207, Honduras: Portrait of a Captive Nation, ed. by Nancy Peckenham and Annie Street, New York, NY, 1985.
_______, Militarismo y reformismo en Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Editorial Guaymuras, 1982.
SCHULZ, D. D., SCHULZ, The United States, Honduras, and the Crisis in Central America, Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1994.
SIEDER, R., “Honduras: The Politics of Exception and Military Reformism, 1972-1978”, Journal of Latin American Studies 27, 1, February, pp. 99-127, 1995.
SIEDER, R., J. DUNKERLEY, The Military in Cetral America: The Challenge of Transition, London, England, University of London, Institute of Latin American Studies, 1994.
STEPAN, A., Rethinking Military Politics: Brazil and the Southern Cone, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press., 1988.
Tiempo, “Así quedó distribuido el presupuesto de 1995” 16. Diciembre, 1994.
Tiempos Nuevos, “Confidéncias”, 1, 3. Mayo, p. 45, 1994a.
_______, “Desafortunado debut del delfín”, 1, 6. Agosto, p. 2, 1994b.
_______, “Confidéncias”, 1, 4. Junio, p. 56.
US Embassy(Tegucigalpa), “Ayuda militar de los Estados Unidos a Honduras, 1981-1992(2 pp. handout), 1993.
US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Confiscated property of American Citizens Overseas: Cases in Honduras, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua, Washinton DC, US Government Printing Office, 1994.
VALENZUELA, S., “Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Setting: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions”, pp. 57-104, Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective, ed by Scott Mainwarning. Guillermo O`Donnel. J. Samuel Valenzuela, Notre Dame, IN, Univ of Notre Dame Press, 1992.
WALTER, K., P. WILLIAMS, “The Military and Democratization in El Salvador”, Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 35, pp. 423-437.
ZAGORSKI, P., “Civil-Military Relations and Argentine Democracy: The Armed Forces under the Menem Government”, Armed Forces and Society 20, pp. 423-437, 1994.
___________, Democracy vs National Security: Civil-Military Relations in Latin America, Boulder, CO., Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992.
ARCOS, C., Author interview with former US Ambassador at the State Department, Washington DC, March, 1995.
AZCONA HOYO, J., Author interview with former Hodurian president, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, March, 1995.
Center for Justice and International Law and Human Rights Watch/ Americas, The Fact Speaks for Themselves: Preliminary Report on Disappearances of the National Commissioner for the Protection of Human Rights in Honduras, New York, NY, Human Rights Watch, 1994.
Central America Report, “Honduras: Step Back on Draft”, 21. 30, 12. August, p. 3.
Central America Report, “Honduras: Military Resists Budget Cuts”, 18. 22, 14. June, 1991, pp. 169-170.
DIX, R., “Military Coups and Military Rule in Latin America”, Armed Forces and Society 20. 3, Spring. 1994, pp. 439-456.
FLORES, E., “National Security”, pp. 209-248, Honduras: A Country Study, ed. by Tim L. Merrill, Washington DC, Government Printing Office, 1995.
FUNES, M., Los Deliberantes: El Poder militar en Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Editorial Guaymuras, 1995.
Honduras: Boletín Informativo(Tegucigalpa), “Relaciones cívico- militares”, 167, pp. 7-12, March. 1995a.
_______, “Situación de los derechos humanos en Hoduras”, 167, pp. 8-14, March. 1995b.
_______, “Acontecer económico”, 168, pp. 5-6, April. 1995c.
_______, “Relaciones cívico-militares”, 164, pp. 5-7, December. 1994a.
_______, “Relaciones cívico-militares”, 163, pp. 7-11, November. 1994b.
_______, “Acontecer económico”, 153, pp. 10-11, January. 1994c.
HUNTER, W., “Politicians against Soldiers: Contesting the Military in Postauthoritarian Brazil”, Comparative Politics 27, pp. 425-445, 1995.
HUNTINGTON, S., The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, Norman, OK, Univ of Oklahoma Press, 1991.
_______, Political Order in changing Societies, New Haven, CT, Yale Univ Press, 1968.
Latin American Weekly Report, “Honduras: Discua Blinks, Politicos Charge”, 12, p. 137, 1994.
LOVEMAN, B., “`Protected Democracies` and Military Guardianship: Political transitions in Latin America, 1978-1993”, Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 36, pp. 105-189, 1994.
MAINWARNING, S. G., O`DONNEL and S. VALENZUELA, “Introduction”, Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective, ed. by Scott Mainwarning, Guillermo O`Donnel, J., Samuel Valenzuela, Notre Dame, IN, Univ of Notre Dame Press, 1992.
MARTINEZ, J., “Los militares: Su peso específico en la vida política Hondureña, capítulo uno”, pp. 16-21, Tiempos Nuevos, Marzo, Tegucigalpa, 1994a.
_______, “Los militares: Su peso específico en la vida política Hondureña, capítulo dos”, pp. 34-36, Tiempos Nuevos, Mayo, Tegucigalpa, 1994b.
MEZA, V., “The Military: Willing to deal”, NACLA Report on the americas 22, pp. 14-21, 1988.
Miami Herald, “A General Rises as Military Weakness”, 19-A, 20. January, 1996.
MILLETT, R., “An End to Militarism?: Democracy and the Armed Forces in Central America”, Current History 94, 589, pp. 71-75, Febrary, 1995
MOLINA CHOCANO, G., “Governabilidad y reforma del estado en Centroamérica”, Revista de Defensa Nacional 2, 1, Marzo, pp. 5-13, Tegucigalpa, 1995.
MORRIS, J., Honduras: Caudillo Politics and Military Rulers, Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1984.
O`DONNELL, G., P. SCHMITTER, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies, Baltimore, MD, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986.
PION-BERLIN, D., “The Armed Forces and Politics: Gains and Snares in Recent Scholarship”, Latin American Research Review 30, 1, pp. 147-162, 1995.
_______, “Military Autonomy and Emerging Democracies in South America”, Comparative Politics 25, 1, October, pp. 83-102, 1992.
RIAL, J., “The Armed Forces and Democracy: The Interests of Latin American Military Cooperations in Sustaining Democratic Regimes”, pp. 277-295, The Military and Democracy: The Future of Civil-Military relations in Latin America, ed. by Louis W Goodman, Johanna S. R Mendelson, Juan Rial, Lexington, MA, Lexington Books, 1990.
ROPP, S., “Explaining the Long-Term Maintenance of a Military Regime: Panama before the U. S Invasion, World Politics 44, 2, January, pp. 210-234, 1992.
_______, “The Honduran Army in the Sociopolitical Evolution of the Honduran State”, The Americas 30, 4, April, pp. 504-528, 1974.
ROSENBERG, M., “Democracy in Honduras: The Electoral and Political Reality”, pp. 66-83, Elections and Democracy in Central America, Revisited, ed. by John A. Booth and Mitchell A Seligson, Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Press, 1996.
_______, “Narcos and Politics: The Politics of Drug Trafficking in Honduras”, Journal of Democracy in Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 30, 2 & 3(Summer/Fall), pp. 143-165, 1988.
ROSENBERG, T., “Overcoming the Legacies of Dictatorship”, Foreign Affairs 74, 3(My/June), pp. 134-152, 1995.
ROUQUI, A., “Demilitarization and the Institutionalization of Military-dominated Politics in Latin America”, pp. 108-136, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives, ed. by Guillermo O`Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead, Baltimore, MD, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986.
SALOMON, L., “Honduras: las fuerzas armadas y retos de la consolidación democrática”, pp. 57-83, Los retos de la Democracia, ed. por Leticia Salomón, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Centro de Documentación de Honduras, 1994a.
_______, Democratización y sociedad civil en Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Centro de Documentación de Honduras, 1994b.
_______, “Las dificultades de la reconversación militar en Honduras”, Puntos de Vista 8, diciembre, pp. 10-19, 1993.
_______, Política y militares en Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Centro de Documentación de Honduras, 1992.
_______, “The National Security Doctrine in Honduras: Analysis of the Fall of General Gustavo Alvarez Martínez”, pp. 197-207, Honduras: Portrait of a Captive Nation, ed. by Nancy Peckenham and Annie Street, New York, NY, 1985.
_______, Militarismo y reformismo en Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Editorial Guaymuras, 1982.
SCHULZ, D. D., SCHULZ, The United States, Honduras, and the Crisis in Central America, Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1994.
SIEDER, R., “Honduras: The Politics of Exception and Military Reformism, 1972-1978”, Journal of Latin American Studies 27, 1, February, pp. 99-127, 1995.
SIEDER, R., J. DUNKERLEY, The Military in Cetral America: The Challenge of Transition, London, England, University of London, Institute of Latin American Studies, 1994.
STEPAN, A., Rethinking Military Politics: Brazil and the Southern Cone, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press., 1988.
Tiempo, “Así quedó distribuido el presupuesto de 1995” 16. Diciembre, 1994.
Tiempos Nuevos, “Confidéncias”, 1, 3. Mayo, p. 45, 1994a.
_______, “Desafortunado debut del delfín”, 1, 6. Agosto, p. 2, 1994b.
_______, “Confidéncias”, 1, 4. Junio, p. 56.
US Embassy(Tegucigalpa), “Ayuda militar de los Estados Unidos a Honduras, 1981-1992(2 pp. handout), 1993.
US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Confiscated property of American Citizens Overseas: Cases in Honduras, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua, Washinton DC, US Government Printing Office, 1994.
VALENZUELA, S., “Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Setting: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions”, pp. 57-104, Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective, ed by Scott Mainwarning. Guillermo O`Donnel. J. Samuel Valenzuela, Notre Dame, IN, Univ of Notre Dame Press, 1992.
WALTER, K., P. WILLIAMS, “The Military and Democratization in El Salvador”, Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 35, pp. 423-437.
ZAGORSKI, P., “Civil-Military Relations and Argentine Democracy: The Armed Forces under the Menem Government”, Armed Forces and Society 20, pp. 423-437, 1994.
___________, Democracy vs National Security: Civil-Military Relations in Latin America, Boulder, CO., Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992.
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